一、Revealed preference method

1. Types of value

• use value
  • Direct use value：可分为消费性与非消费性
    • consumptive：食物、鱼等消费品
    • non consumptive：享受娱乐文化休闲设置
  • indirect use value：授粉、防洪价值
  • Option value（期权价值）：人们可以在未来享用某些东西的权利价值
• non-use value：存在价值

2. Non-market valuation

目标：对不在市场进行交易的非市场产品进行估值，即使是市场化的环境产品可能也存在非市场价值。

• Revealed preference methods 显示偏好法
  • Infer preferences from a person’s action
  • When alternative A costs at least as much as alternative B, and the consumer chooses alternative A, then alternative A is revealed preferred to B.
  • Because revealed preference methods need an action, they can only be used on goods that have use values.
• Stated preference methods 陈述偏好法
  • Infer preferences from a person’s statement
  • Because stated preference methods do not depend on an action, they can be used both on goods that have use values and goods that have non-use values.

3. Revealed preference methods

• Travel cost method 旅行成本法
• Hedonic pricing 特征价值
• Averting behavior 防护支出法

二、Travel cost method

（一） Overview

• Basis：There is a relationship between the cost of visiting an area and the quantity of visits to an area. 【访问次数和访问成本之间具有相关关系，成本越高，次数越少；因此访问某地的MWTP可以使用他们在不同travel cost下的访问次数来进行估计】

• Application: Estimate economic use values associated with ecosystems or sites that are used for recreation.【主要是用于娱乐】

  • ep.Hiking，swimming，sightseeing
  • 这些地点主要是作为娱乐场所，没有什么濒危动物或者特殊的非使用价值

• Example: this method can be used to estimate the benefits or costs resulting from changes in environmental quality at a recreational site

  【此方法可用于估算娱乐场所环境质量变化所带来的收益或成本】

（二）Steps

Step 1: Collect information

• “Price” of visiting the site
  • Travel expenses【旅行支出】
  • Time costs
    • Travel time: Location of each visitor’s home
    • The amount of time spent at the site【在这个地方花的时间】
    • The visitor’s income or other information on the value of their time【不同收入的人时间价格是不同的】